O Level Revision : History - The United Nations

Formation of the  UN

• After the Second World War, and the ineffectiveness of the League of Nations, there was need to maintain world peace.
• Nations tried to maintain peace by using the balance of power among the states of Europe.

• Weapons of mass destruction like atomic bombs were used in the Second World War.

• This made the need for a more efficient way of ensuring world peace urgent.

• The Atlantic Charter of 1941 became the first step towards the formation of the UN.
• The term UN was coined by Roosevelt in 1942.
• Twenty six nations signed the declaration of the UN in Washington but these nations were more concerned with winning the war against Nazism.
• Fifty countries met in San Francisco in 1945 and came up with a final draft of the UN.
• The UN Charter was ratified by China, France, the UK, the USA, and USSR.
• The six official languages of the UN are Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian and Spanish.

• The UN headquarters are in New York City.
• The land and buildings where the UN is based are international property.
• The UN has its own flag, post office and postage stamps.

The  aims of the  UN

• The UN Charter/constitution is the supreme law of the UN.

• It sets out rights and obligations of the member states.
• It established its organs and procedures.
• The UN aims to:

-     maintain peace and security;

-     deal   with   aggression   in   conformity   with principles of international law and justice;

-     develop friendly relations on the principle of equal rights and self-determination;

-     achieve      international      cooperation      by encouraging respect for human rights and freedoms;

-     be the centre for harmonising the actions.

The  Principles of the  UN

• All member states have sovereign equality.
• All members must obey the Charter.
• Countries  must  settle  their  differences  through peaceful means.

• Countries  must  avoid  force  nor  threaten  to  use force.

• The UN may not interfere in domestic affairs of any country.
• Countries should try to assist the UN.

The  UN membership

• At first it was confined to those states that had declared war on Germany but its membership is now open to all peace-loving nations.

The  structure of the  UN

• The Charter established six major organs, namely:

1. General Assembly.
2. Security Council.
3. Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC).
4. Trusteeship Council.
5. International Court of Justice.
6. Secretariat.

General  assembly

• It is the main organ of the UN.
• It is like a “world” parliament.
• It was established during the League of Nations period.

• The assembly is composed of all member states.
• It is a debating chamber.
• It is headed by a president.
• The presidency rotates annually among the five groups of  states,  namely African  region, Asian region, Eastern Europe region, Western Europe region and Americas region.
• This is meant to promote equitable geographical representation.

• Each member state has one vote no matter how big or small, rich or poor.

• Decisions are reached by a simple majority.
• But decisions on important issues like peace and security, admission of new members and the budget require a two-thirds majority.
• Decisions  of    the    General    Assembly    are recommendations and cannot be enforced but they carry weight because they represent the opinion of the world community.
• It meets  once  a  year  from  September  to  mid- December. It can hold emergency or special sessions when there is urgent business to be done.
• Each country is represented by a senior diplomat or a foreign minister or heads of state.

• The General Assembly is there to:

-     Discuss any question relating to international peace and security.

-     Make     recommendations     for     peaceful settlement on any situation threatening friendly relations.

-     Receiving and considering reports from the Security Council and other UN organs.

-     Considering and approving the UN budget.

-     Electing   non-permanent   members   of   the Security Council, members of the Economic and Social Council and of the Trusteeship Council.

-     Electing  jointly  the  Security  Council,  the judges of the International Court of Justice and the Secretary-General.

• The General Assembly has the power to take action if the Security Council fails.

The  Security Council

• It was called the League Council but it is now called the Security Council.

• It is the most powerful UN organ.
• It is like a cabinet.
• It is made up of five permanent members of the UN namely Britain, China, France, the USA and the Russian Republic.
• These are added to the 10 temporary members who are chosen by the General Assembly for a term of two years.
• Each council member has one vote.
• The permanent members have the right of veto.
• A  Security  Council  decision  is  binding  on  the General Assembly.

• This means there is no majority rule in the UN but dictatorship by the minority.

• The Council can be summoned at any time.
• The function and powers of the Security Council are:

-     Maintaining peace and security.

-     Investigating any dispute which might lead to international conflict.

-     Stopping wars which have started.

-     Deploying  military  observers  as  a  peace- keeping force to areas of conflict.

-     Recommending methods or terms of settlement over disputes.

-     Taking military action against an aggressor.

-     Recommending    the    admission    of    new members.

-     Electing judges of the International Court of Justice.

-     Prosecuting   someone   guilty   of   violating international law.

-     Observing elections.

-     Recommending to the General Assembly the appointment of a Secretary General.

The  Secretariat of the  UN

• It is headed by the Secretary-General.
• The Secretary-General and the Secretariat staff are international civil servants.

• They report to the UN only.
• The Secretary-General serves for a period of five years but can be re-elected for another five years.
• The functions of the Secretariat include:

-     Administering     peacekeeping     operations, programmes and policies.

-     Mediating in international disputes.

-     Organising international conferences.

-     Interpreting      speeches      and      translating documents into the UN’s official languages.

-     Preparing UN reports and publications.

-     Carrying  out  the  recommendations  of  the Security Council.

• The Secretariat decides which country is to provide troops to a troubled spot.

• It  organises  their  transport,  supplies,  equipment and appoints commanders.

• UN Secretary- Generals include:

-     Mr Kofi Annan of Ghana (1997-2007).

-     Boutros Boutros- Ghali of Egypt (1992-1996).

-     Javier Perez de Cuellar of Peru (1982-1991).

-     Kurt Waldheim of Austria (1972-1981).

-     U Thant of Burma or Myanmar (1961-1971).

-     Dag Hammarskfold of Sweden (1953-1961).

-     Trygue Lie of Norway (1946-1952).

-     Ban Ki Moon of South Korea (2008-).

Economic and  Social Council  (ECOSOC)

• It is made up of fifty-four members who serve for a period of three years.

• Voting is by simple majority.   Each member has one vote.

• It  aims   to   get   international   cooperation   of educational, economic, financial, cultural, health, labour, agricultural as well as humanitarian work.
• Its functions are:

-     Serving as a central forum for the discussion in international economic and social issues of global nature.

-     Initiating studies and reporting on economic, social, cultural and health matters.

-     Promoting respect and observance of human rights and basic freedoms.

-     Coordinating the activities of the specialised agencies and programmes.

• The ECOSOC is helped by other bodies to do its work e.g.:
• Population Commission
• Commission on Human Rights
• Committee on Non-Governmental Organisations
• Committee on Negotiation with Inter-governmental Agencies

International Court of Justice

• Was formed in 1946. It is commonly known as the World Court.

• It is in the Hague in the Netherlands (Holland.)
• It is open to all members.
• It has fifteen judges who are elected by the General- Assembly.

• Judges are chosen on the basis of merit and not nationality.

• Care is taken to ensure that the chief legal systems of the world like English Law, Roman-Dutch Law and American Law are represented.
• The Court’s function is to settle legal disputes and give legal advice.

• Settling legal disputes between member states e.g.:

-     economic rights

-     mineral rights

-     fishing rights

-     ownership of uninhabited islands

-     land boundaries

• Giving legal advice to the UN specialised agencies.

The  Trusteeship Council

• It was established by the Charter in 1945.
• It  has  five permanent  members  of  the  Security Council. The functions of the organ are:

-     Looking after the rights and interests of the territories which have not become independent.

-     Helpthetrustterritoriestobecomeindependent.

The  UN in action

• The UN was involved in settling disputes in Africa, the Americas, Asia and Europe from the 1950s to the 1990s.
• There were  inter-state  (between  states)  conflicts and intra-state conflicts (conflicts within states) in the 1990s.

Angola

• In 1975 a civil war broke out between Government forces (MPLA) and UNITA, the opposition forces led by Jonas Savimbi.
• The UN mediated between the warring parties.
• It imposed arms and oil embargo on UNITA.
• It established the following peace keeping missions:

-     1989 – a mission to monitor the withdrawal of Cuban troops from Angola.

-     1991 – a mission to monitor the ceasefire and observing the 1992 elections.

-     1995  mission  to  monitor  the  integration  of UNITA into government.

-     the UN observer mission, MONYA, to help restore peace.

• However, a war broke out again in 1993.
• Peace returned to Angola after the death of Savimbi in 2002.

Burundi

• There were ethnic wars between the Hutu and Tutsi since 1963.

• President Habiyarimana (a Hutu) and six ministers were killed in a coup in 1993.

• A civil  war  followed  and  about  150  000  were people killed in three years.

• An agreement between the warring parties led to peace and a new government.

• A Tutsi-led military coup deposed the President and new government in 1996.

• The Security Council condemned the coups and called for peace.

• Fighting     continued     resulting     in     internal displacement of people.

• In 1996 Julius Nyerere began mediation efforts.
• Nelson Mandela continued with mediation after Nyerere’s death.
• Then the Peace and Reconciliation Agreement was signed in Arusha in Tanzania in August 2000.

Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC)

• In 1996 Zairean Tutsi led by Laurent Kabila clashed with the pro-Hutu army of President Mobutu Sese Seko.
• Kabila’s Alliance of  Democratic  Forces  for  the Liberation of Congo (ADFL), helped by Rwanda and Uganda, took Kinshasa in 1997
• 450 000 people became refugees and many others were displaced internally.

• In 1998 a rebellion against Kabila started in Kivu Province.

• Kabila  was  helped  by  Angola,  Namibia  and Zimbabwe.
• The UN deployed 90 UN military officers.
• In 1999 the UN Security Council established the UN Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (MONUC).

UN specialised agencies

• Specialised agencies are part of the UN system.
• They    are    separate    and    autonomous    inter- governmental organisations.

• Each agent has a specific work to do.
• They  depend  on  funds  contributed  by  member states to achieve their goals.
• Examples of  specialised  agencies  are:  United Nations International Children’s Fund (UNICEF); International Labour Organisation (ILO); Food and Agricultural Organisation (FAO); UNESCO; World Health Organisation (WHO) and International Monetary Fud (IMF).

United  Nations International Children’s Fund (UNICEF)

UNICEF is mandated by the United Nations General

Assembly to:

• Advocate for the protection of children’s rights, to help meet their basic needs and to expand their opportunities to reach their full potential.
• Establish children’s  rights  as  enduring  ethical principles and international standards of behaviour towards children.
• Mobilise political will and material resources to help countries, particularly developing countries, ensure a ‘first call for children’ and to build their capacity to form appropriate policies and deliver services for children and their families.
• Ensurespecialprotectionforthemostdisadvantaged children – victims of war, disasters, extreme poverty, all forms of violence and exploitation and those with disabilities.
• Respond in  emergencies  to  protect  the  rights of children. In everything it does, the most disadvantaged children and the countries in greatest need have priority.
• Promote the equal rights of women and girls and to support their full participation in the political, social, and   economic   development   of   their communities.

International Labour  Organisation (ILO)

• It was established in 1919 by the League of Nations.
• It seeks to promote social justice as well as human and labour rights

• To  improve  working  and  living  conditions  of workers and to create international labour standards.
• It also engages in training, education and research.
• It is involved in the fight against HIV/AIDS and child labour.

Food and  Agricultural Organisation (FAO)

• It was founded on 16 October 1945.
• 16 October is observed yearly as World Food Day.
• It is responsible for rural development.
• It aims to alleviate poverty and hunger by promoting agricultural development.
• It works to improve nutrition and food security.
• Food security refers to the access of all people at all times to the food they need for an active and healthy life.
• FAO helps member states in seed production, soil protection, conservation,  animal  disease  control and land reform.
• United  Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO)

• Created in 1946.
• It aims to build lasting peace and to promote a culture of peace.
• It  works   in   the   area   of   education,   natural sciences, social and human sciences, culture and communication.

World Health Organisation (WHO)

• It aims to improve health and quality of life for all.
• Its work involves disease control and to eradicate diseases, e.g. cholera, malaria and tuberculosis.
• It also strives to reduce death rates and create a healthy environment.

International  Monetary Fund  (IMF)

• Established at the Bretton Woods Conference in 1944.
• It provides temporary funds to member states that have balance of payment problems and debts.
• IMF funds are given conditionally.

The  strengths and  weaknesses of the UN

Strengths

• The  UN  has  managed  to  maintain  peace  and stability in the world.

• Has managed to raise several peace-keeping forces.
• Its successes are based on the fact that it carries the weight of the world opinion.
• It also uses various methods to maintain peace, e.g. mediation, economic sanctions, arms and trade embargoes and military action.
• The UN’s impartiality allows it to deal with any crisis.

Weaknesses

• Duplication: Many of its specialised agencies deal with HIV/AIDS, disease control, sanitation, etc. This is a waste of resources.
• The UN needs to coordinate the work of its agencies in order to avoid duplication.

• Standing army: It does not have its own standing army.  It depends on military personnel and equipment contributions from member states during emergencies.
• This  arrangement  delays  the  UN’s  response  to emergencies.

• It makes the UN face difficulties to deal with a war between super powers.

• Veto power: The idea of veto power and permanent members makes it undemocratic and contradicts UN CharterArticle 2 which says, “The Organisation is based on the principle of the sovereign equality of all members”.
• Therefore, there is need to reform the UN so that all members, big or small, rich or poor, are equal.

• The present arrangements make the UN vulnerable to the dictates of the superpowers.

• It allows rich members to manipulate the UN or ignore it altogether like what the USA and UK did in Iraq in 2003; and also what NATO did in Yugoslavia which led to the division in the Security Council.
• It depends on voluntary contributions to its budget.

This makes the UN fail to raise adequate funds for its operations.